How Latin America Gained Independence from Spain

How Latin America Gained Independence from Spain Independence from Spain came suddenly for most of Latin America. Between 1810 and 1825, most of Spains former colonies had declared and won independence and had divided up into republics. Sentiment had been growing in the colonies for some time, dating back to the American Revolution. Although Spanish forces efficiently quashed most early rebellions, the idea of independence had taken root in the minds of the people of Latin America and continued to grow. Napoleons invasion of Spain (1807-1808) provided the spark the rebels needed. Napoleon, seeking to expand his empire, attacked and defeated Spain, and he put his elder brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. This act made for a perfect excuse for secession, and by the time Spain had gotten rid of Joseph in 1813 most of their former colonies had declared themselves independent. Spain fought valiantly to hold on to its rich colonies. Although the independence movements took place at about the same time, the regions were not united, and each area had its own leaders and history. Independence in Mexico Independence in Mexico was sparked by Father Miguel Hidalgo, a priest living and working in the small town of Dolores. He and a small group of conspirators started the rebellion by ringing the church bells on the morning of September 16, 1810. This act became known as the Cry of Dolores. His ragtag army made it partway to the capital before being driven back, and Hidalgo himself was captured and executed in July of 1811. Its leader gone, the Mexican Independence movement almost failed, but the command was assumed by Josà © Marà ­a Morelos, another priest, and a talented field marshal. Morelos won a series of impressive victories against Spanish forces before being captured and executed in December 1815. The rebellion continued, and two new leaders came to prominence: Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria, both of whom commanded large armies in the south and south-central parts of Mexico. The Spanish sent out a young officer, Agustà ­n de Iturbide, at the head of a large army to quash the rebellion once and for all in 1820. Iturbide, however, was distressed over political developments in Spain and switched sides. With the defection of its largest army, Spanish rule in Mexico was essentially over, and Spain formally recognized Mexicos independence on August 24, 1821. Independence in Northern South America The independence struggle in northern Latin America began in 1806 when Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda first attempted to liberate his homeland with British help. This attempt failed, but Miranda returned in 1810 to head up the First Venezuelan Republic with Simà ³n Bolà ­var and others. Bolà ­var fought the Spanish in Venezuela, Ecuador, and Colombia for several years, decisively beating them several times. By 1822, those countries were free, and Bolà ­var set his sights on Peru, the last and mightiest Spanish holdout on the continent. Along with his close friend and subordinate Antonio Josà © de Sucre, Bolà ­var won two important victories in 1824: at Junà ­n, on August 6, and at Ayacucho on December 9. Their forces routed, the Spanish signed a peace agreement shortly after the battle of Ayacucho. Independence in Southern South America Argentina drew up its own government on May 25, 1810, in response to Napoleons capture of Spain, although it would not formally declare independence until 1816. Although Argentine rebel forces fought several small battles with Spanish forces, most of their efforts went towards fighting larger Spanish garrisons in Peru and Bolivia. The fight for Argentine Independence was led by Josà © de San Martà ­n, an Argentine native who had been trained as a military officer in Spain. In 1817, he crossed the Andes into Chile, where Bernardo OHiggins and his rebel army had been fighting the Spanish to a draw since 1810. Joining forces, the Chileans and Argentines soundly defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Maipà º (near Santiago, Chile) on April 5, 1818, effectively ending Spanish control over the southern part of South America. Independence in the Caribbean Although Spain lost all of their colonies on the mainland by 1825, it retained control over Cuba and Puerto Rico. It had already lost control of Hispaniola due to slave uprisings in Haiti. In Cuba, Spanish forces put down several major rebellions, including one which lasted from 1868 to 1878. Carlos Manuel de Cespedes led it. Another major attempt at independence took place in 1895 when ragtag forces including Cuban poet and patriot Josà © Martà ­ were defeated at the Battle of Dos Rà ­os. The revolution was still simmering in 1898 when the United States and Spain fought the Spanish-American War. After the war, Cuba became a US protectorate and was granted independence in 1902. In Puerto Rico, nationalist forces staged occasional uprisings, including a notable one in 1868. None were successful, however, and Puerto Rico did not become independent from Spain until 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War. The island became a protectorate of the United States, and it has been so ever since. Sources Harvey, Robert. Liberators: Latin Americas Struggle for Independence. 1st edition, Harry N. Abrams, September 1, 2000. Lynch, John. The Spanish American Revolutions 1808-1826 New York: W. W. Norton Company, 1986. Lynch, John. Simon Bolivar: A Life. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006. Scheina, Robert L. Latin Americas Wars, Volume 1: The Age of the Caudillo 1791-1899 Washington, D.C.: Brasseys Inc., 2003. Shumway, Nicolas. The Invention of Argentina. University of California Press, March 18, 1993. Villalpando, Josà © Manuel. .Miguel Hidalgo Mexico City: Editorial Planeta, 2002.

Art and Philosophy essays

Art and Philosophy essays Our ancestors first sought to understand themselves and their surroundings through the invention of myths and the worshipping of gods. The Greeks, for example, created gods like Athena and Aries to explain the concept of wisdom and war respectively. I would like to think, contrary to common thought, that this is not a matter of ignorance but of an answering of a basic primal need in humans that still exists today the need for symbolism, for the human mind is weak and needs constantly to be reminded of what they value most ideals and emotions. That is what set the stage for art, whose purpose lies in exploring what man thought and felt. But the limitless capabilities of man, like a fast spreading disease, is so shocking that the boundless expansion of art is quickly making it necessary for man to attempt to define it in order to gain control of, and understand it. Already, the history of art in the 19th century alone has seen movements like realism and impressionism that challenges, time and again, what can be perceived as the notion of art. The underlying concern is that very soon art will not exist, because art is like a garden; though the flowers have to be allowed to bloom freely, a lack of attention and tending after would most certainly result in a tangled mess of overgrown weeds and undergrowth. Over time, you may very well get yourself a jungle! It is therefore imperative that we understand what art is. In the meantime, though, art is still present, at every point of time, in a myriad of different forms to different people. This means not just the different categories of art and its accompanying styles, but also how each individual chooses to interpret a piece of artwork that is presented to them. For example, L.H.O.O.Q by Marcel Duchamp, the key figure of 20th century art movement, Dadaism, may be understood by one group of people as a mockery of classical beauty, of which some would commend and others d...